Archaeological Chemistry of Residues: Reconstructing the social status of past populations through dietary studies
Ellie Harris, Scientific Collaborator, ReaxionLab
https://www.linkedin.com/in/ellie-harris-715402128
Received June 18, 2023. Accepted July 7, 2025.
Abstract
This article discusses how organic residues from archaeological specimens can be used to reconstruct ancient dietary information and infer the social status of past individuals and populations. Through molecular analysis, particularly stable isotope analysis of human remains and archaeological artefacts, significant insights can be revealed about past dietary habits and patterns. Individuals of higher status often depicted a diet of a high proportion of protein sources and greater variety, whilst those of lower status primarily consumed cereals and legumes. By integrating bioarcheological research with historical documentation and archaeological context, this allows interpretations of how food sources reflect historical social systems and reveal the social identities of past populations.
Keywords: Archaeological Chemistry; dietary habits; past populations; bioarcheology
Investigating such aspects of past populations is not straightforward using traditional archaeological approaches, although current bioarcheological methods used in conjunction with historical evidence bring the potential to interpret ancient diets and reconstruct the social status of both past individuals and populations. Molecular analysis is regularly utilized by archaeologists for dietary reconstruction. Most current knowledge of pre-modern society diet and nutrition has been learnt from observational studies of modern populations alongside examining skeletal remains and historical artefacts [9]. Stable isotope analysis is the predominant method employed to analyze dietary information as humans (and animals) incorporate the isotopic signatures of food sources consumed [1,6]. The stable isotope composition of bone composition represents the isotopic protein composition of an individuals diet during life, this can provide information on trophic level and marine vs. terrestrial protein consumption [6]; therefore, δ13C and δ15N enable the reconstruction of trophic relationships and the identifying likely sources of dietary protein consumed [2]. Research depicts a generalization that those of a higher social status tend to have more varied diets, consisting of a higher proportion of protein sources, as well as alcoholic beverages. However, caution must be taken during analysis as isotopic values can be significantly affected by environmental variables such as seasonality and location. Additionally, many food sources have similar δ13C and δ15N values, which may limit the resolution of interpretations; furthermore, post-depositional contamination may obscure data. As well as analyzing bone collagen, ceramic cooking vessels can provide further insights into past culinary practices. Chemical analysis of lipid residues absorbed into the vessels, in conjunction with carbonized surface residues, can reflect the vessel's original contents and can identify specific food sources including meat, dairy and plant oils [4,5]. Despite pottery artefacts often being fragments, these can still provide valuable dietary information and can expand upon protein consumption.
Despite stable isotope analysis being a powerful tool to investigate the dietary habits of past individuals, interpreting social status solely from isotopic signatures is difficult. Additional evidence is vital to contextualize chemical data, such as historical archives or literature, grave goods, burial customs and location. Without such context, bioarcheological findings are limited to the conclusions drawn about diet and social stratification of historical populations. Research of three distinct sites from 10th-century Hungary found no significant relationship between diet and social class; rather, site location and age had the largest effect on the isotopic values [7]. Shell beads are well documented to have been worn around one's head as a highly visual representation of wealth and status [7]; therefore, the association of these with graves was used as an indicator of social class. Isotopic results indicated that commoners and elites consumed the same food types, although it is highly reasonable to infer that beads carried a higher symbolic value to elites than high-status foods. This clearly illustrates the importance of historical context, as well as the importance of grave goods in determining the social class of a population sample. In contrast, a study examining the social structure of a Swedish pre-industrial mining community (c.1470-1600 AD) revealed a clear connection between diet and social hierarchy. Bone collagen isotopic values depicted higher proportions of protein consumption amongst higher status groups, strongly aligning with historical documents that recorded the diets of various social divisions of the community [2]. Similarly, isotopic analysis of urban cemeteries in Roman Britain indicated clear differences in elaborate graves in significant burial locations, whose diet consisted of much higher proportions of terrestrial and marine proteins, compared to individuals excavated from simple and less significantly placed burials [8], suggesting dietary variation between social classes.
Furthermore, isotopic values of social elites from the early medieval Polish state of the First Piasts (represented by chamber grave burials) evidenced a greater access to food sources, with their diets comparably higher in animal proteins than the contemporary commoners [3]. Findings from this study also report that elite females and children consumed a diet similar to that of a lower social status [3], highlighting the role of gender and age in societal hierarchy systems and food source distribution, emphasizing that these factors should be taken into consideration during interpretations. Numerous studies have reported a correlation between diet and social class, but the findings are inconsistent across various research papers. Factors such as environment, gender, age, religion, and culture can all influence dietary practices, potentially obscuring conclusions about social status. Overall, the relationship between dietary practices and social hierarchy in past populations appears to be paradoxical; it is clear that context plays a crucial role in this area of research.
Overall, it is evident that molecular analysis of residues provides a huge insight into the dietary practices of past populations. This dietary information can also be used to infer the social status of studied populations, ensuring adequate historical documentation and archaeological artefacts are present to provide context to the bioarcheological data. However, status is complex to interpret and cannot always be inferred directly from dietary practices; therefore, residue analysis should be approached with careful consideration. Nonetheless, utilizing the archaeological chemistry of residues is a valuable tool to reconstruct past identities and the structure of social hierarchies within a population.
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